Women in the Soviet Union
Since the beginning of time and well into the tsarist empire, women were thought to be inferior beings, mere possessions; easily controlled and, if needed, easily replaced. Women were the most illiterate among the Russian population; people did not see the necessity of teaching women how to read and write when they were only working in the kitchen. During the Soviet Union, however, things began to change. The Bolsheviks – and especially Lenin – fought for the emancipation of women. Lenin argued, just like Marx and Engels, that "No nation can be free when half the population is enslaved in the kitchen." Women were now given the opportunity to work outside the home and to play a full role in all domains of political and social life, for the simple reason that the State’s industry began to develop (and thus needed new workforce) and because the Bolshevik’s aimed for a planned nationalised economy.
Nevertheless, several people discuss the statement that women were fully equal to men in Soviet Russia. Even though theory was aimed for them to be so, reality seemed to be slightly different – and this specifically when Stalin came to reign. The Stalinist leader wanted women to “enjoy motherhood” and to play the roles of “mother” and “wife” anew.
How did women live under Lenin and Stalin? Were women and men truly equals?
Through a detailed analysis of women’s lives in the Soviet Union, I shall be able to respond to these questions.
Nevertheless, several people discuss the statement that women were fully equal to men in Soviet Russia. Even though theory was aimed for them to be so, reality seemed to be slightly different – and this specifically when Stalin came to reign. The Stalinist leader wanted women to “enjoy motherhood” and to play the roles of “mother” and “wife” anew.
How did women live under Lenin and Stalin? Were women and men truly equals?
Through a detailed analysis of women’s lives in the Soviet Union, I shall be able to respond to these questions.
Looking at October 1917, it is clear that immense progresses regarding the emancipation of women have been made. For the very first time in Russia, the complete economic, political and sexual equality of women was put on the historic agenda[i]. The Bolsheviks under Lenin wanted to give women the opportunity to be more than just wife and mother; they wanted women to vote and, more importantly, to work outside the house just like their male comrades. Nonetheless, certain consequences had to be taken in order to achieve this goal. Women would have to be released from the traditional confines of domestic chores, with childcare becoming the responsibility of society as a whole, as well as the provision of cheap but good public dining halls, laundries, sewing centres, crèches and nurseries[ii]. Many men (and surprisingly also many women) protested against the aforementioned facilities, accusing them to be cause of family and relationship break-ups. Lenin disagreed and said that by offering such services (and thus lifting responsibilities of a woman’s shoulder), a relationship with a voluntary and equal basis would finally become possible – which is a most-important step toward emancipation. Other progresses within relationships included the fact that women were no longer obliged to live with their husband or to accompany him if a change of job meant a change of house[iii].
Economic independence of women grew, too; Property relationships changed to give women equal rights to hold land, be head of a household and to receive equal pay[iv]. Attention was paid to women's childbearing role and special maternity laws were introduced, forbidding long working hours and night work, and establishing paid leave at childbirth, family allowances and childcare centres. Abortion was no longer illegal and divorce became cheaper and thus simpler. The 8th March 1913, the International Women’s Day was introduced, celebrating women’s emancipation[v].
Lenin, however, was not fully satisfied. He was proud of the “new theory”, the “new law” that “did not leave any trace of inequality between men and women” but he wanted it to become daily-life reality. There had to be the practical means to ensure that legal equality could become a reality, as well as a fundamental change in attitudes about the role of women in society. Legally, women were considered equal to men, but deep down, the problem remained: many men still held onto the belief that they were the dominant sex in society. Even though they addressed everyone as “Comrade”, it did not mean they actually believed women to be at the same level[vi]. Countless women disliked other women who chose to break out of their social boundaries. Politics, for example, was a man’s business and any woman who dared taking a step into it, was seen as dishonest. Women generally had a tendency to vote for a man because he was a man, not because he was better or “more able” to do the job than a woman. Sadly, the inferior mentality still existed and was a barrier to absolute equality between both sexes.
Nonetheless, different actions were taken by the Soviet government in order to make sure that women were equally involved everywhere. One of the first tasks of the government was to mobilise millions of women workers and peasants to participate in building the new society. A series of conferences were organised, leading up to the First All Russian Congress of Working Women in November 1918, where Lenin claimed that "the experience of all liberation movements has shown that the success of a revolution depends on how much women take part in it. The Soviet government is doing everything in its power to enable women to carry on independent proletarian socialist work."[vii] Commissions for agitation and propaganda were set up, hoping to encourage women to work, participate in politics and reduce illiteracy. Women in propaganda posters often looked robust and physically similar to men - this demonstrated the equality of the sexes the government was trying to achieve[viii]. A Women’s Department for the Bolshevik Party named the Zhenotdel was also introduced. However, it is important to clarify that Lenin was not a “feminist”; he even warned against a separate organisation of women. He constantly repeated that “this (emancipation of women) is not bourgeois feminism but a practical revolutionary expediency”.[ix]
When production was at its lowest, the Bolsheviks introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP), which certainly had serious consequences for women and their emancipation. Along with Russia’s isolation and economic backwardness, the NEP laid a new basis for inequality and privilege in the Soviet Union. Unemployment rose, and soon women (especially unskilled women) found themselves without any job opportunities (1923 in Petrograd: 58% of the unemployed were women and in the textile-industry, 80-90% of the unemployed were women)[x]. Even though men and women were “equal”, male workers were still favoured and seen as more skilled than female ones. Famine became an immense problem; women did not know how to feed their family anymore. The fact that divorce has been simplified added to their misery, the chances now being higher to find themselves without husbands who could feed them. As female workers were unable to find a job and thus to afford crèches, kindergartens or even social dining rooms, they had no other choice than to stay home in order to take care of their children and the food. Women were now cooks and cleaners again.
By 1928, however, the kulaks became a real threat of capitalist renovation, keeping grain, gold and even guns, which led to a new programme of rapid industrialisation and collectivisation that needed lots of workers (also female ones!). Millions of women were quickly mobilised and between 1922 and 1937 out of 4 million new workers 82 per cent were women[xi]. Nonetheless, it is significant to know that employment of female workers does not necessarily represent liberation. In fact, many women did not have a choice but to work in a factory, they were being forced by the government. Under the emerging bureaucracy, employment meant increased domination and oppression because of other changes in legislation regarding the family.[xii] It was at this time, in 1930, that the Zhenotdel was formally abolished[xiii].
When Stalin came to reign, things quickly began to change for women. In 1934 homosexuality and prostitution were declared crimes with penalties of up to 8 years imprisonment and in 1936 there were over 1,000 women arrested for prostitution in Moscow alone[xiv]. The reason why many women were tending to prostitution was because of their lack of money - they often saw no other choice than prostitution. This, of course, represented an extreme degradation for women and showed that socialism had not yet been achieved.
Under Stalin, divorce became more expensive (the first divorce: 50 roubles, which was approximately one week’s wage, the second one was for 150 roubles and 300 for any divorce that followed). Additionally, men were to pay 1/3 of their earnings to their ex-wives (feeding the children)[xv]. The roles of men and women were structured anew; men were here to work and make money, women had to be the perfect wives and mothers. This is also the reason why social dining rooms and other facilities were made unaffordable for working women with standard wages, which caused many of them to stay at home. Stalin wanted women to be housewives and to have as many children as possible; women with 9 children or more even got the “Glory of Motherhood” medal[xvi]. Abortion became illegal, as well, and so did contraception. Housework was considered socially useful labour, yet there were enormous differences in the lives of ordinary women workers and the wives of the bureaucrats, who had cooks, telephones with which to order the shopping, and cars.[xvii] Improvements for women under Stalin include the fact that the number of women in higher education has risen to 43% in 1960 and to 49% in 1970. The female life expectancy doubled and there was a huge decrease (90%) in child mortality.
Under Stalin, divorce became more expensive (the first divorce: 50 roubles, which was approximately one week’s wage, the second one was for 150 roubles and 300 for any divorce that followed). Additionally, men were to pay 1/3 of their earnings to their ex-wives (feeding the children)[xv]. The roles of men and women were structured anew; men were here to work and make money, women had to be the perfect wives and mothers. This is also the reason why social dining rooms and other facilities were made unaffordable for working women with standard wages, which caused many of them to stay at home. Stalin wanted women to be housewives and to have as many children as possible; women with 9 children or more even got the “Glory of Motherhood” medal[xvi]. Abortion became illegal, as well, and so did contraception. Housework was considered socially useful labour, yet there were enormous differences in the lives of ordinary women workers and the wives of the bureaucrats, who had cooks, telephones with which to order the shopping, and cars.[xvii] Improvements for women under Stalin include the fact that the number of women in higher education has risen to 43% in 1960 and to 49% in 1970. The female life expectancy doubled and there was a huge decrease (90%) in child mortality.
In conclusion, we can see that according to Lenin’s new laws, women were indeed supposed to be treated equally to men. However, this was mainly theoretical and only to a certain extent. In reality, the imbalance between both sexes endured. It is also important to notice that although women were allowed to work, they remained responsible for the children and household chores – they thus had twice as much work as their male comrades. The fact that women were mobilised can also be seen as a manipulation of the government to suit the needs of the Soviet Union, rather than an attempt to emancipate the female sex. As I’ve already mentioned: Employment does not necessarily mean freedom. Nevertheless, the progresses regarding the emancipation of women cannot be overlooked. There was an immense decrease in illiteracy, life expectancy increased, women were allowed to use contraception (under Lenin), to choose their own husband, to vote and for a short period of time, women were even permitted into politics (this, again, only under Lenin).
The differences between Stalin and Lenin are also clear: Lenin wanted women to be equal to men, as he believed that only full equality could lead to socialism and freedom. Stalin, on the other hand, was more conservative and believed that women were to “enjoy motherhood”.
Hence, I believe that women were never truly equal to men (neither under Lenin, nor under Stalin) in Soviet Russia, as the mentality of many people persisted as an obstacle. Nevertheless, Lenin did at least try to emancipate women, and also made progresses, which was most certainly an important step toward the equality of both sexes.
[i] Women in the Soviet Union by Anonymous; socialistappeal.org
[ii] Protection of Women and Children in Soviet Russia, E.P. Dutton, 1932.
[iii] Women in the Soviet Union by Anonymous; socialistappeal.org
[iv] Women in the Soviet Union by Anonymous; socialistappeal.org
[v] International Women’s Day Article by Wikipedia
[vi] Article: Russian Women after the Revolution, from The Feminist eZine
[vii] Women in the Soviet Union by Anonymous; socialistappeal.org
[viii] Term-paper Women in Communist Russia 1917-1945 by Lee Si-eun
[ix] Women in the Soviet Union by Anonymous; socialistappeal.org
[x] Jen Pickard. Women in the Soviet Union (1988)
[xi] Women in Post-Revolutionary Russia: The Opportunities and Obstacles, from: 123HelpMe
[xii] Women in the Soviet Union by Anonymous; socialistappeal.org
[xiii] Article: The Zhenotdel by Wikipedia
[xiv] Women in the Soviet Union by Anonymous; socialistappeal.org
[xv] The Great Retreat hand-out
[xvi] Women Under Stalin: A new Womanhood by Chelsea Adler
[xvii] Women in the Soviet Union by Anonymous; socialistappeal.org
The differences between Stalin and Lenin are also clear: Lenin wanted women to be equal to men, as he believed that only full equality could lead to socialism and freedom. Stalin, on the other hand, was more conservative and believed that women were to “enjoy motherhood”.
Hence, I believe that women were never truly equal to men (neither under Lenin, nor under Stalin) in Soviet Russia, as the mentality of many people persisted as an obstacle. Nevertheless, Lenin did at least try to emancipate women, and also made progresses, which was most certainly an important step toward the equality of both sexes.
[i] Women in the Soviet Union by Anonymous; socialistappeal.org
[ii] Protection of Women and Children in Soviet Russia, E.P. Dutton, 1932.
[iii] Women in the Soviet Union by Anonymous; socialistappeal.org
[iv] Women in the Soviet Union by Anonymous; socialistappeal.org
[v] International Women’s Day Article by Wikipedia
[vi] Article: Russian Women after the Revolution, from The Feminist eZine
[vii] Women in the Soviet Union by Anonymous; socialistappeal.org
[viii] Term-paper Women in Communist Russia 1917-1945 by Lee Si-eun
[ix] Women in the Soviet Union by Anonymous; socialistappeal.org
[x] Jen Pickard. Women in the Soviet Union (1988)
[xi] Women in Post-Revolutionary Russia: The Opportunities and Obstacles, from: 123HelpMe
[xii] Women in the Soviet Union by Anonymous; socialistappeal.org
[xiii] Article: The Zhenotdel by Wikipedia
[xiv] Women in the Soviet Union by Anonymous; socialistappeal.org
[xv] The Great Retreat hand-out
[xvi] Women Under Stalin: A new Womanhood by Chelsea Adler
[xvii] Women in the Soviet Union by Anonymous; socialistappeal.org
Watch the thrilling interview with Olga Avilov, a "former member" of the Zhenotdel!